APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY

Course description

The course is designed as experimental complement to the theoretical courses in Archaeometry, Biophysics and Medical Physics. Its aim is to develop practical skills in the use of experimental techniques and instrumentation relevant to Applied Physics, with particular emphasis on experimental design, measurement procedures, data acquisition and analysis, uncertainty evaluation, and critical interpretation of results.

The course is organized into three 2-CFU modules: Archaeometry Laboratory, Biophysics Laboratory, and Medical Physics Laboratory. Each module combines introductory lectures with hands-on laboratory activities. The laboratory work is organized around experimentally relevant questions and integrates complementary techniques rather than presenting them as isolated experiments.

Expected learning outcomes

At the end of the course, students will be able to design and plan experiments addressing specific problems in Applied Physics, select and operate appropriate experimental instrumentation, perform measurements and acquire experimental data following defined protocoles and analyse the resulting data.

Students will also be able to evaluate measurement uncertainty, distinguish statistical and systematic effects, assess the reliability and limitations of experimental results, compare measurements with theoretical models or reference data, and integrate information obtained from complementary experimental techniques. They will acquire the ability to communicate experimental procedures and results using appropriate scientific terminology and to work effectively in an interdisciplinary experimental environment.

The course is intended to bridge the theoretical knowledge acquired in Archaeometry, Biophysics and Medical Physics with its practical and instrumental implementation.

Knowledge and understanding

Students will acquire practical knowledge and understanding of the physical principles underlying selected experimental techniques in Applied Physics, together with the operating principles and main characteristics of the relevant scientific instrumentation.

Attention will be given to optical and spectroscopic measurements, luminescence techniques, fluorescence-based methods, environmental monitoring and radiation dosimetry. Students will also develop an understanding of calibration, data acquisition, quality-control procedures, data processing and uncertainty evaluation, with emphasis on the relationship between physical models, measurable quantities and experimental observables.

Applying knowledge and understanding

Students will be able to translate a physical problem into an appropriate experimental strategy and select suitable measurement techniques according to the quantity to be investigated. They will be able to configure and use experimental instrumentation, acquire and process experimental data, identify relevant sources of uncertainty and error, and evaluate the consistency and reliability of measurements.

Students will also learn to interpret experimental results in relation to physical models and reference information, combine results obtained using complementary techniques, and adapt experimental procedures to different samples, measurement conditions and experimental constraints.

Making judgements

Students will develop the ability to critically evaluate experimental procedures and results. They will learn to distinguish statistical fluctuations from systematic effects, identify possible sources of error and uncertainty, recognize anomalous or inconsistent results, and assess the limitations and reproducibility of an experimental technique.

They will also be able to compare alternative measurement approaches and propose improvements to experimental procedures based on the evidence provided by the measurements.

Communication skills

Students will be able to clearly describe experimental setups and measurement procedures, use appropriate scientific and technical terminology, present experimental data in suitable graphical and tabular form, and report measurement uncertainties and experimental limitations.

They will prepare concise scientific laboratory reports and discuss experimental findings both individually and within small research teams.

Learning skills

Students will develop the ability to independently acquire new experimental and technical skills. They will learn to consult scientific literature, technical documentation and instrument manuals, understand the operating principles of unfamiliar experimental equipment, select appropriate data-analysis procedures, and transfer experimental methodologies between different fields of Applied Physics.

Teaching methodology

Teaching is organized into three integrated modules combining introductory lectures and hands-on laboratory activities.

The 7 hours of introductory lectures in each module provide the physical principles, methodological concepts and instrumental background required for the experimental activities. The 15 hours of laboratory activities are based on learning-by-doing, with students directly involved in experimental setup, calibration, measurements, data acquisition, data processing and interpretation.

Depending on the experimental setup, activities may be carried out individually or in small groups. Emphasis is placed on safe and correct operation of instrumentation, experimental planning, calibration, data analysis, uncertainty evaluation and critical interpretation of results.

The specific experimental activities may be adapted according to the instrumentation available in the Applied Physics laboratories and to current experimental and research activities of the Department.

Students are expected to have acquired the basic theoretical knowledge provided by the corresponding courses in Archaeometry, Biophysics and Medical Physics.

Basic knowledge of experimental physics, data analysis, statistics and uncertainty evaluation is also expected.

Course contents and teaching organization

The course consists of three modules, each corresponding to 2 CFU (22 hours): 7 hours of introductory lectures and 15 hours of laboratory activities.

The introductory lectures provide the physical, methodological and instrumental background required for the subsequent experimental work. The laboratory activities are organized around three main experimental questions in each module and are designed to integrate complementary experimental techniques.

Module 1 – Archaeometry Laboratory

The module focuses on the experimental characterization and monitoring of Cultural Heritage materials, integrating optical and spectroscopic characterization, luminescence techniques and environmental monitoring.

Introductory lectures

1. Optical and Spectroscopic Characterization of Cultural Heritage Materials

Light–matter interaction and optical properties of Cultural Heritage materials. Principles of spectrophotometry and spectroradiometry, colour specification and quantitative colour measurements. Principles of Raman spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence (XRF), including instrumentation, measurement geometry, calibration, spectral acquisition and data interpretation.

2. Stimulated Luminescence in Archaeometry

Physical principles of luminescence and excitation/emission processes, trapping and recombination mechanisms. Thermoluminescence (TL) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL), luminescence signals and dose estimation. Application of TL/OSL to archaeological materials and luminescence dating.

3. Microclimate Monitoring and Environmental Effects on Cultural Heritage

Environmental parameters relevant to the conservation of Cultural Heritage. Measurement of illuminance, temperature and relative humidity, together with sensors and data acquisition systems. Principles of microclimate monitoring in museums and historical buildings, climatic chambers and controlled environmental testing. Environmental fluctuations and their effects on Cultural Heritage materials.

Laboratory activities

1. What is the material? - Optical and Spectroscopic Characterization

Characterization of selected Cultural Heritage materials using spectrophotometric and/or spectroradiometric measurements. Raman spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Students will perform instrument setup and calibration, data acquisition and processing, spectral interpretation, material identification, integrating optical, molecular and elemental information.

2. How old is it and what can luminescence tell us? - Stimulated Luminescence

TL and OSL measurements in suitable materials. Students will acquire and analyse luminescence signals, investigate their dependence on experimental parameters, and relate the measured response to radiation exposure and absorbed dose. Application to luminescence dating and the characterization and authentication of archaeological materials.

3. How is it affected by its environment? - Microclimate Monitoring and Environmental Characterization

Monitoring of environmental parameters relevant to the preservation of Cultural Heritage materials. Students will measure illuminance, temperature and relative humidity using appropriate sensors and data-acquisition systems, analyse their temporal variations, and investigate controlled environmental conditions using a climatic chamber. Focus on the relationship between environmental conditions and material preservation.

Module 2 – Biophysics Laboratory

The module focuses on the experimental investigation of biological systems through optical and fluorescence-based techniques, with particular emphasis on imaging, molecular interactions and molecular dynamics.

Introductory lectures

1. Confocal and super-resolution microscopy

Principles of optical and fluorescence microscopy, image formation and spatial resolution. Fluorescent probes and contrast mechanisms, instrumentation and optical components. Image acquisition and basic quantitative image analysis, including sources of noise and experimental artifacts. Photobleaching. Confocal and super-resolution microscopy. Stimulated mission depletion (STED) microscopy. Image Scanning Microscopy (ISM).

2. Fluorescence lifetime measurement and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM)

Principles of fluorescence emission and fluorescence lifetime. Time-resolved fluorescence measurements and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM). Phasor analysis of FLIM data. Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) as a probe of molecular proximity and interactions. Sensitivity of fluorescence to the molecular environment. Experimental configurations and data interpretation.

3. Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) and related methods

Fluorescence intensity fluctuations and molecular dynamics. Principles of Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS), autocorrelation functions and their relation to molecular concentration and diffusion. Molecular brightness. Image Correlation Spectroscopy (ICS). Experimental requirements, data acquisition and analysis, with applications to biological systems.

Laboratory activities

1. What can we see in a biological system? - Confocal and super-resolution microscopy

Experimental observation and quantitative characterization of biological samples using fluorescence microscopy. Students will work with confocal and super-resolution fluorescence imaging, optimize acquisition parameters, evaluate image quality and sources of noise, and perform basic quantitative image analysis.

2. What can fluorescence tell us about molecular interactions? - Fluorescence Lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM)

Experimental investigation of fluorescence lifetime and its sensitivity to the molecular environment. Acquisition of fluorescence lifetime data using time- and frequency-domain approaches. Students will acquire and analyse fluorescence decay curves and lifetime images. The activity includes comparison of fluorescence signals under different experimental conditions and interpretation of the resulting fluorescence parameters.

3. How can we measure molecular motion and concentration? - Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS)

Experimental investigation of molecular fluctuations and dynamics using FCS. Students will acquire fluorescence intensity fluctuations on a confocal microscope, calculate and analyse autocorrelation functions, and estimate molecular concentration and diffusion parameters. Particular attention will be given to the dependence of the measurements on experimental conditions and to the interpretation of molecular dynamics in biological systems.

Module 3 – Medical Physics Laboratory

Introductory lectures

Radiation Dosimetry and Dosimetric Detectors - Passive dosimetry with thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), radiochromic films and dosimetric gels. Dose-response relationships and experimental protocols for quantitative measurements. Introduction to thermoluminescence kinetics, including first-order, second-order and general-order kinetic models, and computational approaches for glow-curve analysis and deconvolution.

Radiotherapy Treatment Planning and Treatment Planning Systems - Principles of radiotherapy treatment planning and dose calculation. Treatment geometry, radiation fields and dose distributions. Introduction to treatment planning systems (TPS) and computational approaches to treatment-plan simulation. Basic principles of treatment-plan evaluation and dose distribution analysis. Introduction to the MatRad treatment planning and research platform, including dose calculation, plan optimization and visualization of simulated dose distributions. Principles of photon and electron beam characterization. Basic dosimetric parameters for the characterization of radiation fields, including symmetry, flatness and penumbra.

Laboratory activities

1. Experimental characterization of different TLD and OSLD. Students will follow experimental protocols for TLD/OSLD irradiation and readout, construct calibration curves for the different dosimetric materials, and compare their dose-response characteristics. The activity will include a computational approach for the determination of relevant kinetic parameters. First-order, second-order and general-order kinetic models will be investigated.

2. Experimental characterization of different Gafchromic films and construction of film-specific calibration curves. Students will investigate film response using both transmission and reflection scanning method and different readout scanning protocols. Irradiated films will be used for the characterization of photon and electron radiation fields. Students will acquire and analyse dose profiles and determine relevant beam parameters (ex. symmetry, flatness and penumbra).

3. Introduction to experimental data analysis for three-dimensional dosimetry using dosimetric gels. Students will analyse experimental gel dosimetry data and investigate methods for the reconstruction, visualization and quantitative analysis of dose distributions. The activity will address data processing, extraction of relevant dosimetric parameters, comparison with reference dose distributions, and the main sources of uncertainty and limitations associated with gel dosimetry.

4. Introduction to computational treatment planning using the MatRad open-source treatment planning research platform. Students will simulate simplified radiotherapy treatment plans, define treatment geometries and beam parameters, calculate dose distributions, and visualize the resulting dose maps. The activity will include basic analysis and comparison of simulated dose distributions and introduce fundamental concepts of treatment-plan evaluation and dose optimization.

Suggested reference material

Reference material will include lecture notes and laboratory protocols provided by the teachers, selected scientific papers and technical documentation relevant to the experimental activities, instrument manuals and technical documentation, and selected textbooks associated with the corresponding theoretical courses.

The specific references may be updated according to the experimental techniques and instrumentation used during the course.

Assessment

Assessment is based on the student's participation in laboratory activities and on the evaluation of the experimental work carried out during the course.

The assessment considers the understanding of experimental principles, the correct use of instrumentation and procedures, the quality of data acquisition and analysis, the evaluation of uncertainties and experimental limitations, and the ability to interpret and critically discuss experimental results. Laboratory reports and/or oral discussions may be used to assess the student's ability to communicate the experimental work and its results.

Description of the laboratory activity carried out, with particular emphasis on the topic selected for in-depth study, according to the following structure: Problem – Materials and Methods – Experimental Procedures and Data Analysis – Measurements – Results and Discussion – Conclusions and Perspectives.